Køn

Kønsforskelle i forbindelse med PTSD som hovedemne. Køn er en vigtig variabel i de fleste af vores undersøgelser.

Afsluttet: 2018

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Relevante publikationer:
Murphy, S., Elklit, A., Chen, Y. Y., Ghazali, S. R., & Shevlin, M. (2018). Sex Differences in PTSD Symptoms: A Differential Item Functioning Approach. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Doi: 10.1037/tra0000355

Christiansen, D. M. (2017). Mediation and moderation effects of sex and gender in PTSD. Department of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Aarhus University.

Christiansen, D. M. (2017) Sex and gender differences in trauma victims presenting for treatment. I M. J. Legato (red.), Principles of gender-specific medicine: Gender in the Genomic Era (3. udg., s. 497-511). Academic Press. Doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-803506-1.00043-7

Murphy, S. & Elklit, A. (2017)Gender Differences in PTSD Symptoms: A Differential Item Functioning Approach. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(3), 263-385. Doi: 10.1037/tra0000355

Christiansen, D. M., & Hansen, M. (2015) Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6. Doi: 10.3402/ejpt.v6.26068

Ditlevsen, D. N. & Elklit, A.(2012) Gender, Trauma Type and PTSD Prevalence: A Re-analysis of 18 Nordic Convenience Samples. Annals of General Psychiatry, 11(26). Doi: 10.1186/1744-859X-11-26

Christiansen, D. & Elklit, A.(2011) Sex differences in PTSD. In E. Ovuga (Ed.): Post Traumatic Stress Disorders in a Global Context. (pp 113-142). ISBN 978-953-307-825-0. Rijeka, Croatia: Intech.

Spindler, H., Elklit, A. & Christiansen, D. (2010). Risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder following a technological disaster in a residential area: A note on the origin of gender differences in post-traumatic stress disorder. Gender Medicine, 7(2), 156-165.

Ditlevsen, D. N. & Elklit, A.(2010) The Combined Effect of Gender and Age on Post-tramatic Stress Disorder: Do Men and Women Show Differences in the Lifespan Distribution of PTSD? Annals of General Psychiatry, 9(32). Doi: 10.1186/1744-859X-9-32.

Hvert år kommer 1500-2000 mennesker alvorligt til skade i trafikken i Danmark. Posttraumatisk stressforstyrrelse (PTSD) er hyppigt forekommende efter sådanne alvorlige trafikuheld og tilsvarende alvorlige ulykker med prævalensrater på 20-45%. Desværre er vores aktuelle viden om, hvordan vi bedst identificerer personer i risiko for at udvikle PTSD, yderst mangelfuld. Det er især uklart, om de samme faktorer kan bruges til at identificere og forebygge PTSD hos mænd og kvinder.

Omtrent dobbelt så mange kvinder som mænd udvikler PTSD efter at have været udsat for en alvorlig ulykke. Vi mener, at en stor del af forklaringen på disse kønsforskelle skal findes i mænds og kvinders akutte reaktioner på ulykken. Dette omfatter både de psykologiske, de fysiologiske og de endokrinologiske (hormonelle) reaktioner. Forståelse af disse faktorer kan derfor være afgørende for, at vi kan forbedre tidlig identifikation, forebyggelse og behandling af PTSD og andre traumerelaterede lidelser blandt ulykkesofre.

Det aktuelle projekt er et prospektivt pilotstudie af patienter, der har været udsat for en trafikulykke eller tilsvarende alvorlig ulykke. Studiets fokusområde kan deles op i tre:

1. Samspillet mellem akutte fysiologiske, endokrinologiske og psykologiske reaktioner på større ulykker.
2. Disse akutte reaktioners indflydelse på udvikling af PTSD-symptomer 3 og 6 måneder senere.
3. Kønsforskelle i de to ovenstående punkter med særligt fokus på, hvordan såvel biologiske som sociokulturelle kønsrelaterede faktorer påvirker traumereaktioner.

Studiet vil være det første af sin art til at undersøge det komplekse samspil mellem de kropslige og psykologiske aspekter af såvel køn som traumerespons fra flere vinkler, som ofte undersøges hver for sig.  Fraværet af lignende tidligere forskning er også grunden til, at det aktuelle studie gennemføres som et pilotstudie som første led i et forskningsprojekt, der efterfølgende forventes gennemført i større omfang.

Formålet med studiet var at undersøge den kombinerede effekt af køn og alder på posttraumatisk stresslidelse (PTSD) for at beskrive en mulig kønsforskel i fordelingen af PTSD over hele livsforløbet. Data blev indsamlet fra tidligere danske og nordiske studier af PTSD eller traumer. Den endelige stikprøve bestod af 6.548 deltagere, 2.768 (42,3 %) mænd og 3.780 (57,7 %) kvinder. PTSD blev målt ved hjælp af Harvard Trauma Questionnaire, Part IV (HTQ-IV). Mænd og kvinder var forskellige i fordelingen af PTSD gennem hele livet. Den højeste prævalens af PTSD blev set i begyndelsen af 40'erne for mænd og i begyndelsen af 50'erne for kvinder, mens den laveste prævalens for begge køn var i begyndelsen af 70'erne. Kvinder havde generelt dobbelt så høj forekomst af PTSD som mænd. Men i nogle aldre var forholdet mellem kvinder og mænd næsten 3:1. Den højeste ratio mellem kvinder og mænd blev fundet i aldersgruppen 21-25 år. Kønsforskellene gennem hele livet viser, hvor vigtigt det er at inddrage reproduktive faktorer og socialt ansvar i forståelsen af udviklingen af PTSD.

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Relevante publikationer:
Ditlevsen, D. N. & Elklit, A. (2010). The Combined Effect of Gender and Age on Posttramatic Stress Disorder: Do Men and Women Show Differences in the Lifespan Distribution of PTSD? Annals of General Psychiatry, 9:32. Doi:10.1186/1744-859X-9-32.

Background: The factor structure of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been extensively studied in Western countries. Some studies have assessed its factor structure in Asia (China, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia), but few have directly assessed the factor structure of PTSD in an Indian adult sample. Furthermore, in a largely patriarchal society in India with strong gender roles, it becomes imperative to assess the association between the factors of PTSD and gender. Objective: The purpose of the present study was to assess the factor structure of PTSD in an Indian sample of trauma survivors based on prevailing models of PTSD defined in the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000), and to assess the relation between PTSD factors and gender. Method: The sample comprised of 313 participants (55.9% female) from Jammu and Kashmir, India, who had experienced a natural disaster (N=200) or displacement due to cross-border firing (N=113). Results: Three existing PTSD models--two four-factor models (Emotional Numbing and Dysphoria), and a five-factor model (Dysphoric Arousal)--were tested using Confirmatory Factor Analysis with addition of gender as a covariate. The three competing models had similar fit indices although the Dysphoric Arousal model fit significantly better than Emotional Numbing and Dysphoria models. Gender differences were found across the factors of Re-experiencing and Anxious arousal. Conclusions: Findings indicate that the Dysphoric Arousal model of PTSD was the best model; albeit the fit indices of all models were fairly similar. Compared to males, females scored higher on factors of Re-experiencing and Anxious arousal. Gender differences found across two factors of PTSD are discussed in light of the social milieu in India.

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Relevante publikationer:
Charak, R., Armour, C., Elklit, A., Angmo, D., Elhai, J. D. & Koot, H. M.: (2014). Factor Structure of PTSD and Relationship with Gender in Trauma Survivors from India. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5:25547. Doi: 10.3402/ejpt.v5.25547.

Background: The aim of the study was to examine a possible trauma type related variance in the gender difference of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) prevalence. Methods: An analysis was conducted on 18 convenience sample studies including data from a total of 5220 participants. The studies all applied the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire - part IV to assess PTSD. Cohen's d was used to measure variance in gender differences. Trauma types included disasters and accidents, violence, loss, chronic disease and non-malignant diseases. Results: The results showed an overall gender difference in PTSD prevalence similar to previous findings. Thus, women had a two-fold higher prevalence of PTSD than men. Besides categorical analyses, dimensional analyses of PTSD severity were also performed; the latter were associated with twice as large effect sizes. Females were more vulnerable to PTSD after disasters and accidents, followed by loss and non-malignant diseases. In violence and chronic disease, the gender differences were smallest. Conclusions: The findings support the existence of a trauma type related variance in gender differences in PTSD prevalence.

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Relevante publikationer:
Ditlevsen, D. N. & Elklit, A. (2012). Gender, Trauma Type and PTSD Prevalence: A Re-analysis of 18 Nordic Convenience Samples. Annals of General Psychiatry, 11:26. Doi:10.1186/1744-859X-11-26

Objective: Evidence has suggested there are sex differences in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom expression; however, few studies have assessed whether these differences are due to measurement invariance. This study aimed to examine sex differences in PTSD symptoms based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5) using differential item functioning (DIF). Method: Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the DSM-5 model of PTSD, followed by a multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) model to examine possible DIF using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5. Data were analyzed from a Malaysian adolescent sample (n = 481) of which 61.7% were female, with a mean age of 17.03 years. Results: The results indicated the presence of DIF for 2 of 20 PTSD criteria. Females scored significantly higher on emotional cue reactivity (B4), and males reported significantly higher rates of reckless or self-destructive behavior (E2) while statistically controlling for the latent variables in the model. However, the magnitude of these item-level differences was small. Conclusion: These findings indicate that despite the presence of DIF for 2 DSM-5 symptoms. this does not provide firm support for nonequivalence across sex.

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Relevante publikationer: 
Murphy, S., Elklit, A., Chen, Y.Y., Ghazali, S.R., & Shevlin, M. (2018). Gender Differences in PTSD Symptoms: A Differential Item Functioning Approach. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(3) pp. 263-385. Doi: 10.1037/tra0000355

Gender is an important risk factor for both posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders (SUD) in adolescents; however, little is known about the influence of gender when considering their common co-occurrence. This study examined independent predictors of PTSD severity between genders in a Danish probability sample of 15- to 18-year-old males (n = 863) and females (n = 1,125). The results showed that drug abuse and avoidant attachment to best friends were significant predictors of PTSD severity in male adolescents, whereas alcohol abuse and the absence of posttraumatic social support from parents remained significant predictors for female adolescents. The results support the influence of gender-specific substance abuse patterns and dysfunctional interpersonal relationships on the PTSD severity of traumatized adolescents.

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Relevante publikationer:
Donbaek, D. F. & Elklit, A. (2015). Gender-specific predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Adolescence: The role of problematic substance use and interpersonal relationships. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 8, 161-172. Doi: 10.1007/s40653-015-0040-5

Adolescents who have multiple traumatic experiences may suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or other mental health problems later in life. Study of trauma exposure and PTSD among adolescents is very limited in Malaysia. This study explored the prevalence of lifetime trauma, demographic risk factors, and PTSD symptoms among Malaysian adolescents. This cross-sectional study recruited 1,016 adolescents aged 13 to 17 (Mage = 14.9 years). Results showed that 83% participants had at least 1 traumatic exposure (TE), whereas prevalence of PTSD symptoms was 11.7%. Adolescents with multiple TEs and those with violent and self-inflicted TE were at significantly higher risk to develop PTSD symptoms. Findings suggest that a large proportion of Malaysian adolescents are exposed to a variety of traumatic events since childhood. Trauma exposure should be included as an important component in our adolescent mental health assessment, allowing early psychological intervention to be provided to those affected.

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Relevante publikationer:
Ghazali, S. R., Elklit, A., Sultan, M. A., Balang, R. V., & Chen, Y. Y.(2016): Lifetime trauma exposure, gender and DSM-V PTSD symptoms among adolescents in Malaysia. Traumatology, 23(3), 235-239. Doi: 10.1037/trm0000088

 Background: Studies indicate that differences in trait anxiety and trauma-related distress may mediate the gender differences observed in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Objective: We examined the contributions of gender, trait anxiety, and trauma-related distress to the development of PTSD after an industrial disaster. Methods: Three months after a massive explosion in a fireworks factory in Kolding, Denmark, in November 2004, residents in the surrounding area were asked to complete the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire, the General Health Questionnaire, and a questionaire designed for the present study. Using multivariable logistic regression with PTSD as the dependent variable, we examined 4 explanatory models: (1) gender; (2) gender and trait anxiety; (3) gender, trait anxiety, and perceived danger; and (4) gender, trait anxiety, perceived danger, perceived hostility, feeling isolated, depersonalization, and behavioral self-blame. Results: Fifty-one percent (N = 516; 265 women and 251 men) of the area residents participated in the study. The female-to-male ratio of PTSD was 2.4:1. Women experienced significantly more trait anxiety (P < 0.001), feelings of isolation (P < 0.005), and behavioral self-blame (P = 0.018), and less perceived danger (P = 0.034) than did men. In multivariable logistic regression analysis, gender alone predicted 3.7% of the variance in PTSD status (odds ratio [OR] = 2.40; 95% CI, 1.35-4.27; P < 0.005); however, in all other models, gender was not significant. The final model comprised trait anxiety (OR = 1.20; 95% CI, 1.11-1.30; P < 0.001), perceived danger (OR = 4.62; 95% Cl, 2.24-9.50; P < 0.001), perceived hostility (OR = 5.21; 95% CI, 1.93-14.09; P < 0.001), feeling isolated (OR = 3.34; 95% CI, 1.55-7.16; P < 0.002), depersonalization (OR = 2.49; 95% CI, 1.42-4.37; P < 0.001), and behavioral self-blame (OR = 0.46; 95% CI, 0.24-0.86; P = 0.015), explaining 48.9% of the variance in PTSD severity. Conclusion: This cross-sectional study found that gender was no longer associated with PTSD status when trait anxiety, perceived danger and hostility, feeling isolated, depersonalization, and behavioral selfblame were taken into account.

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Relevante publikationer:
Spindler, H., Elklit, A. & Christiansen, D. (2010). Risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder following a technological disaster in a residential area: A note on the origin of gender differences in post-traumatic stress disorder. Gender Medicine, 7(2), 156-165. Doi: 10.1016/j.genm.2010.04.001

Objective: There is increasing evidence to suggest that anxiety is related more strongly to chronic pain experience in men relative to women. The aim of the present study was to examine for the first time gender-specific associations between anxiety and chronic pain experience in men and women exposed to whiplash trauma.

Results: Anxiety was found to be positively related to the level of general disability to a significantly stronger magnitude in men compared with women. A trend difference in correlation magnitude was also found between men and women when comparing anxiety with pain frequency, with the magnitude of correlation being higher in men.

Discussion: The stronger association between anxiety and symptoms of whiplash trauma in men compared with women may be due to gender differences in the attribution of anxiety-related autonomic arousal as symptoms of whiplash injury. Alternatively, anxiety may differentially affect the willingness of men and women to report pain and other health indices. Anxiety is an important factor in understanding gender differences in whiplash-related symptoms such as chronic pain and disability, and requires further investigation.

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Relevante publikationer:
Elklit, A. & Jones, A. (2006).The Association between Anxiety and Chronic Pain After Whiplash Injury: Gender-specific Effects. Clinical Journal of Pain, 22 (5), 487-490. Doi: 10.1097/01.ajp.0000208247.18251.bb

Background
This study examined the relationship between alcohol misuse and different types of childhood maltreatment in a sample of young adults while controlling for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and current mental disorders. This study further examined if these associations were different for males and females.

Results
Three types of child maltreatment were assessed; emotional abuse (N =263), sexual abuse (N=59), and multiple abuse (N=64) alongside a non-abused (N=2595) control group. Findings indicated the three maltreatment groups were all related to alcohol misuse. Maltreated women in particular had a 16-to-25-fold increased risk of alcohol misuse. For males these associations were attenuated with odds ratios (OR) ranging between 3 and 5 for emotional and multiple abuse groups. PTSD symptoms were associated with alcohol misuse for both genders, whilst current mental health disorder was non-significant for both males and females.

Conclusion
A significant relationship was found between the child maltreatment and alcohol misuse. This relationship was significantly stronger for maltreated women, which identifies a gap in the literature. High associations between maltreatment and alcohol misuse in females may suggest alcohol is used as a coping strategy following childhood maltreatment.

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Relevante publikationer:
Cronin, S., Murphy, S. & Elklit, A. (2016). Investigating the Relationship between Childhood Maltreatment and Alcohol Misuse in a sample of Danish young adults: Exploring Gender Differences. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 33, 287-298. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/nsad-2016-0022

Studiet var en pilot undersøgelse, med formål at undersøge kønsforskelle i ekspressiv skrivning som intervention hos forældre til børn med leukæmi. Undersøgelsen at ekspressiv skrivning har en signifikant effekt som intervention, samt at der er signifikante kønsforskelle for interventionen. 

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Relevante publikationer:
Christiansen, D. M., Martino, M. L., Elklit, A. & Freda, M. F. (2022). Sex differences in the outcome of expressive writing in parents of children with leukaemia. Clinical Psychology in Europe, 4(1), e5533. Doi: 10.23668/psycharchives.5191

The aim of the present study was to examine specifically whether the relationship between coping style and symptoms of whiplash injury change as a function of gender. A total of 1709 sufferers of whiplash associated disorder (1349 women, 360 men) belonging to the Danish Society for Polio, Traffic and Accident Victims completed questionnaires measuring demographic and psychological factors (including coping style), and symptoms of whiplash trauma (including pain). Men and women were not found to differ significantly in their use of coping strategies, however emotion focused coping strategies were related significantly more strongly to whiplash related symptoms in men compared to women. Women were found to display more symptoms related to whiplash injury compared to men. Possible reasons for the present findings are discussed in light of related research indicating mood as a potential moderating variable in the relationship between maladaptive coping style and degree of symptoms related to injury in men.

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Relevante publikationer:
Jones, A. & Elklit, A. (2007). The Association between Gender, Coping, and Whiplash Related Symptoms in Sufferers of Whiplash Associated Disorder. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,48 (1), 75-80. Doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00543.x